The Nikon F System (Manual Focus)

Nikon FE (1978) w/ AI-converted 28mm f/3.5 Nikkor lens

   
  Updated Jan. 9, 2021

    The third article in our series "Choosing a Vintage SLR System" takes on the Nikon F-mount, arguably the most well-known, and definitely the longest-lived of all the 35mm SLR bayonet systems. After a brief introduction, we will break down our overview in this format: 1) Lenses, 2) Bodies, 3) Flash, 4) Accessories, 5) Reliability & Servicing.

     Nippon Kogaku (Nikon) began to build their reputation in the early 1950's as one of the premier Japanese optics manufacturers. Fortune and Life magazine photographers Horace Bristol and David Douglas Duncan were working in Japan and they were introduced to Nikkor lenses for the Leica M39-mount and Contax cameras then favored by photojournalists. Within a few years, Nikon introduced their famed S-mount series of rangefinder cameras that set new standards for rugged reliability. With the success of the Asahi Pentax SLR of 1957, Nikon found itself at a crossroads, with two management factions forming: one wanting to stick with rangefinders, and the other pushing for SLR development. Eventually (and fortunately for Nikon) the SLR project went ahead, drawing much from the SP rangefinder design. The result was the Nikon F of 1959, a professional-oriented machine. A whole line of Auto-Nikkor lenses underwent rapid development in the early '60s, giving Nikon one of the most extensive offerings of the early Big 4 (Canon, Minolta, and Pentax were the other companies). Nikon also developed a large assortment of accessories to increase the performance and versatility of the F: interchangeable finders, focusing screens, motor drives, etc. Throughout the 1960s and '70s, Nikon solidified its reputation as the first choice of photojournalists and widened its scope to include advanced amateurs, and by 1979, to the average consumer. By the early '80s, they had risen to second place in overall sales among the now-Big 5 (Olympus had elbowed its way in during the mid-'70s). That would be the high-water mark for the Nikon manual focus system (and all other MF systems), although Nikon would continue to produce MF bodies and lenses into the 21st century, which was longer than any other major Japanese manufacturer. So let's get going with Nikon.

  Lenses

​    As noted earlier, Nikon first caught the attention of Western photographers stationed in Japan in 1950, when they found their optics to not only equal but surpass the image quality of the previously dominant German manufacturers' lenses, particularly at wider apertures. Things quickly became uncomfortable for the old guard as an article in the New York Times proclaimed the superiority of the upstarts from the East. Zeiss, in particular, got testy with the newspaper, threatening them with removal of all advertising and declaring that it was impossible for a Japanese lens to outperform a German one. Throughout the rest of the '50s Nikon kept up a brisk pace of lens development that went into another gear with the debut of the F-mount in 1959. The addition of the reflex box, required for through-the-lens viewing with the SLR, necessitated the redesign of the rangefinder (S-mount) lenses to achieve proper back focus distance. Nikon was first among the initial group of major Japanese SLR makers to have a fully automatic aperture (one that stopped down and re-opened without any intervention from the photographer), a feature that took two years for Minolta and Pentax to catch up on, and five years for Canon to do the same.

  
   Nikkor Nomenclature. Manual focus F-mount Nikkors can first be separated into two major categories: 1) pre-AI (or non-AI) and 2) AI. AI stands for Automatic Aperture Indexing, which debuted beginning in 1977. Before 1977, Nikkor lenses used a metering prong (colloquially referred to as Rabbit Ears or the Crab Claw) which was the means of communicating the lens aperture setting to the camera body for metering purposes. This slotted prong engaged a pin that protruded below the prism housing of the camera. To properly couple the lens to the camera, you had to: 1) set the lens to f/5.6, line the slot up with the pin while inserting the lens into the bayonet-mount camera, 2) turn the lens counter-clockwise to lock it into place, and 3) twist the aperture ring to minimum aperture and then back to maximum aperture to index the lens with the meter. This was called by Nikon the "click-click" procedure, and was given various other names by Nikon users ;-). It was anything but automatic. In 1966, Minolta had introduced its MC coupling for its Rokkor lenses, which was a simple tab on the aperture ring that engaged a spring-loaded collar with another tab on its new SRT SLR body. All you had to do was mount the lens, and the coupling & indexing took place automatically. Nikon basically copied this simple system in 1977 to quicken the lens indexing process.

     AI lenses will mount on any manual focus Nikon F-mount body, pre- or post-1977. Non-AI lenses, however can only be used on pre-1977 bodies or bodies with a flip-up AI tab (Nikkormat FT-3, Nikon EL2, FM, FE, F3, F4, Df). Mounting an unmodified pre-AI lens on Nikon bodies with fixed AI tabs WILL DAMAGE the camera and/or lens and will necessitate repairs. The greater mounting versatility of AI lenses thus makes them more popular and they have higher prices than pre-AI Nikkors do. This leads to our first bargain possibility: pre-AI lenses can be a more cost-effective way to get into the Nikkor system, especially if you are using them on a mirrorless camera (no AI tabs to worry about on adapters). Another avenue available to the pre-AI user is conversion of the aperture ring to allow AI operation. Indeed, for many years, Nikon offered a factory AI conversion program where they would do an aperture ring swap to your lens. Unfortunately, this program is no longer offered and the few remaining conversion kits are rare and can be costly. Fortunately, though, most pre-AI aperture rings can be machined or have a tab added (AI'd) to permit full AI compatibility. We are happy to provide this service at 678 Vintage Cameras for $40 CAD per lens plus shipping. Feel free to contact us for details.

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​   A brief outline of the various Nikkor lens generations goes as follows:

• Auto Nikkor (1959 - 71) - the original line of Nikkors introduced with the Nikon F in 1959. "AUTO" identified this series of lenses as having a fully automatic aperture, which meant that the aperture closed down to take the picture and re-opened without any input from the photographer. These lenses had a single-letter code following the NIKKOR on the filter ring that signified the number of optical elements in the lens (e.g. the 50mm f/2 had an "H" code signifying 6 (Hexa) elements). Almost all single-letter lenses have single or double lens coatings (the exceptions being the 28/2 N Auto Nikkor and the 35/1.4 N Auto Nikkor, which were the first fully multicoated Nikkors even though they do not have the "C" code).  
• "C" Nikkors (1971 - 74) - the "C" code signifying the use of full multicoating began to be added after the original single-letter element# code starting in 1971. (The 50mm f/2 now had an H-C code designating it as a multi coated lens.)

• New Nikkors (K) (1974 - 77) - In 1974, the modern look of Nikkors was introduced with the familiar ribbed-rubber focus ring and pyramid-knurled aperture ring. The letter-codes were eliminated. These are often referred to as "K" lenses by Nikonians. This is the final series of pre-AI Nikkors. Many of these designs were carried over into AI versions, requiring only the new-style aperture ring. Colour-balanced Nikon Integrated Coating (NIC) was introduced as an improvement on the first-gen multicoating.

• AI Nikkors (1977 - 81) - While many "K" Nikkor designs were initially carried over into AI form, "value engineering" (Nikon's euphemism for cost-cutting) started to creep in during the AI era. Most of this was cosmetic at first, but mount screws on the smaller lenses decreased from 5 to 3. Further, optical formulas were simplified in many lenses, some of which offered improved performance, while in others it was clear that cost reduction was the primary goal whilst maintaining as much optical performance as possible. Nevertheless, overall quality remained very high. Aperture Direct Readout (ADR) debuted, allowing aperture values to be displayed via a periscope into the viewfinder of the camera. The nubs on the rubber focusing grip are slightly coarser than those on the K lenses.

• Series E (1979 - 1985) - This was a budget line of lenses designed to compete against third-party glass and also with reduced weight to better balance with the compact consumer Nikon SLRs. Construction is lighter than standard Nikkors, and the 50/1.8 makes do with single-coating, but performance of most of these lenses is remarkably good. Operation is identical to AI-s Nikkors, but Series E lenses do not have the old-style Rabbit Ears and are not designated as Nikkors.

• AI-s Nikkors (1981 - 2006) - With the rise in popularity of Program and Shutter-priority auto exposure modes in the early '80s came the need to modify the aperture actuation of AI Nikkors from non-linear to linear. Translation: the method of controlling aperture now had to be more precise to enable accurate exposures in these modes. Another change was the machining of a little divot into the lens mounting flange that indicated the focal length of the lens to the camera thus indicating when higher shutter speeds would need to be set by the camera for longer focal lengths when in Program mode. Minimum aperture on the ADR was now colored orange. Many AI-s lenses had shorter focus throws than their AI predecessors and utilized simplified internal construction. Some late-AI-s lenses were given Nikon's new Super Integrated Coating from about 2000 to 2005. 

    Features. The Nikkor lens lineup covered focal lengths from a 6mm fisheye to a 2000mm supertelephoto. It was the most extensive array of 35mm glass offered by any manufacturer in the film era. Nikon was one of only two manufacturers to produce their own optical glass (the other was Minolta). This gave them complete control of the lens design and building process. They drew some of their inspiration from the Zeiss ethos about contrast and rendering. Because photojournalists were one of their primary customers, Nikon took great pains to cater to their needs. In general, wide angle to mild telephoto Nikkors tend to have a lighter focusing feel compared to other manufacturers' lenses; a result of many PJs preferring to use one finger to focus quickly. 

    Noteworthy Lenses. In the nearly 50 year lifespan of the manual focus (MF) Nikkor F line, there is no shortage of interesting and impressive optics. We'll hit a few of the high points here:

• NIKKOR-H Auto 2.8cm f/3.5 - This was Nikon's first wide angle developed for the F-mount, and is probably one of the most influential lenses of all time when it comes to the optical layout of succeeding wide angle designs. For an in-depth discussion of its innovative design and influence, check out The Thousand and One Nights - Story #12 at nikkor.com (Caution: lens geekery is involved ;-)). According to Nikon, this lens laid the foundation of the reputation of F-series Nikkors for contrasty, sharp images. 
• PC-NIKKOR 35mm f/3.5 - The first 35mm SLR Perspective Control lens ever produced. Although it did not feature a tilt function, it did have shift ability.
• Nikkor-N Auto 24mm f/2.8 - In 1967, Nikon was the first Japanese manufacturer to bring to market a lens utilizing floating elements (Close Range Correction, or CRC in Nikonese) to improve close focus imaging performance with wide angle lenses. Story #14 of The Thousand and One Nights elaborates on its development.
• ​Nikkor N-C Auto 35mm f/1.4 - The first super speed 35mm focal length lens developed for SLRs and the first Nikkor with multi coating. It features CRC for excellent close focusing performance. It is also notable for its use of the standard 52mm filter size, an impressive achievement for such a fast optic. See Story #27 of The Thousand and One Nights.
• Nikkor-H 300mm f/2.8 - Nikon's first fast telephoto to feature ED (Extra-low Dispersion) glass to combat chromatic abberation, although it would not be labelled as such until the second "K" version appeared. It was introduced for the 1972 Sapporo Winter Olympics and led to the extensive use of ED (internally-designated as PC102) glass throughout the rest of the Nikkor telephoto lineup. See Story #11 of The Thousand and One Nights.
• AI Noct NIKKOR 58mm f/1.2 - Perhaps the most famous specialty Nikkor of the manual focus era, the Noct was developed especially for astrophotography and low light and utilized a hand ground aspherical element to greatly reduce coma. This enabled the rendering of stars or other light sources as fine points to the edge of the field. See Story #16 of The Thousand and One Nights.

    Miscellaneous. For most MF Nikkor lenses, filter sizes fell in the range of 52, 62, and 72mm, with 52mm being the standard size.  Two exceptions were: 1) the 18/4 super wide angle, which used a rare 86mm and 2) the super fast AI/AI-s 200/2 which required a massive 122mm filter (the AF versions would adopt the much more practical and affordable 52mm rear drop-in system). The big telephotos would use either 39 or 52mm filters in a drop-in slot at the rear of the lens. Nikon also has an extensive lens hood system that can be quite confusing with it's coding for different generations of hoods. A most helpful resource for this, and all Nikkor specifications, is Roland Vink's Nikon Lens website. 

    Recommendations. MF Nikkors tend to have strong resale value. This is due to Nikon's reputation as the choice of professionals for many decades and the fact that the F-mount is still current, albeit with more and more limitations as far as MF lens compatibility with the newest DSLRs. As with the other manufacturers, there are some good deals to be found with smaller-aperture and older (read: pre-AI and pre-multi coated) lenses. A common issue with older Nikkors is the deterioration of the helicoid lubricant, which leads to a dry, somewhat gritty focusing feel. This can easily be remedied by having the helicoid cleaned and re-greased. Check out our Best Bargain Lenses - Nikon MF articles for Primes (single focal length) and Zooms.   

  Mechanical SLR Bodies

• As noted earlier, the Nikon F debuted in 1959 and quickly set the tone for all professional 35mm SLRs to come. Nikon basically took their top rangefinder body, the SP, and grafted on a mirror box and a couple of new controls with the new F-mount bayonet. Very early Fs used the standard cloth shutter of the SP, but that was soon replaced with the world's first titanium foil shutter, which was also installed in the last SPs. Photojournalists were Nikon's main target with the F and so it was the first SLR with an external motor drive option. This only served to cement its position as the top professional SLR available. The F was as versatile as you could get with: interchangeable finders, focusing screens, bulk film backs, etc. It was the photojournalists' camera of the 1960s (covering the Vietnam War to the Space Race and everything in between). In production for over 14 years, it solidified Nikon's reputation as the purveyor of professional 35mm SLRs.

• Nikon realized that the F was economically out of reach for the average photo enthusiast, so, in 1962, they introduced the Nikkorex F, the product of a collaboration with Mamiya. Unfortunately, its reliability was not up to par, and it sold poorly. It is something of a collectible nowadays because of its relative rarity, but it is more of a conversation piece than anything.

• Nikon returned to the enthusiast market in 1965, with their completely in-house Nikkormat (Nikomat in Japan) FT & FS models. The only carryover from the Nikkorex F was the very capable vertical-travel shutter, with its top speed of 1/1000 sec. and flash sync of 1/125 sec. Although much simpler in construction and having a different control layout (Nikon's solution for the vertical orientation of the shutter was to make the shutter speed ring concentric to the lens mount), the Nikkormat was as tough and reliable as the F. It was still on the high end of the enthusiast market, which reinforced the image of Nikon as the premier Japanese SLR brand, even though they trailed Pentax and Minolta for overall market share. Professionals quickly adopted the Nikkormats as backup bodies for their Fs. 1967 brought the first major update to the FT, as Nikon released the FTn, with a new 60/40 centerweighted metering pattern (matching the pattern of the Tn & FTn finders for the F) that would be used for the next 20 years on enthusiast Nikon bodies. The FTn accelerated Nikon's sales to new levels.

• If the F put Nikon on the professional map, its successor, the F2 (1971-80), left no doubt as to who made the toughest and most reliable SLRs. Although the F2 closely resembled the F, upon closer examination its many refinements became apparent. A more ergonomic shutter release position, more shutter speeds, an improved MLU function, a hinged film back instead of the more clumsy removable type, and many more subtle improvements added up to the most dominant mechanical SLR of all time. In only 8 years, Nikon sold as many F2s as they had sold Fs in the first 14 years of the F-mount SLRs. And the F2 had to withstand the efforts of Canon and Minolta to grab professional market share with their own pro-level SLRs, which it did easily. It was the final professional mechanical F-series and an all time classic.

• In 1975, Nikon again updated the Nikkormat lineup with the FT2. The only changes were a hot shoe for flash and the meter was now powered by a 1.55V silver oxide battery instead of the 1.35V mercury cell of the FTn. 1977 brought the FT3, the final mechanical Nikkormat, with Automatic Aperture Indexing (AI) for faster lens indexing. By the time Nikon discontinued the Nikkormats in 1980, they had sold over 1.4 million bodies in 15 years.

• The more compact and lighter-weight replacement for the mechanical Nikkormat debuted in the same year as the FT3. The all-new Nikon FM took up the mantle of top enthusiast SLR in the Nikon lineup. It adopted a more conventional control layout while having the same shutter specifications as the FTs. MLU was dropped (although the you could pre-fire the mirror using the self-timer). It used the basic "+ o -" LED metering display used by the F2AS albeit with a different viewfinder layout. Some slight cosmetic and internal changes were made in 1978, making FM bodies with a serial # starting with 3xxxxxx and up more desirable from a reliability standpoint.

• 1982 brought the FM2, with its revolutionary honeycomb titanium shutter capable of a 1/4000 sec. top speed. Flash sync speed also rose to 1/200 sec. The multiple exposure lever, interchangeable focusing screens, flash-ready LED, and power switch of the electronic FE (1978) were also adopted for the FM2. Two years later, the FM2N brought the flash sync speed to 1/250 sec. By the late '80s Nikon was able to use duralumin (a special aluminum alloy) instead of titanium for the shutter blades with no loss of reliability or longevity and at notable savings in cost. The FM2N was one Nikon's longest lived models, and served as a backup for many a pro. Another classic.

• The final Nikon mechanical MF camera is not actually a Nikon beyond the lens mount. Introduced in 1995, the entry-level FM10 was badge engineered by Cosina for Nikon. The basic chassis (Cosina CT-1) has been used for several such bodies for various camera companies for decades. While very plasticky in feel and below the build quality level of home-grown Nikons, it is an adequate SLR. It uses the LED viewfinder over/under display of the other FMs. It does not offer TTL flash, nor motor drive capability. It is not compatible with unconverted pre-AI lenses.

    Recommendations. Nikon produced mechanical SLRs longer than any other member of the Big 5. So there are many choices available to the film enthusiast. Our first suggestion is to grab a model that uses 1.55V cells to power the meter. The reasons for this are purely for the ready availability and low cost of such cells and no recalibration of the meter is needed. The F2 and any of the post-1975 amateur (Nikkormat FT-2 and on) bodies will fit the bill here. Next comes the matter of size and weight. Weight and dimensions decrease in this order: F2; F; Nikkormats; FM/FM2/FM2N. As far as the F models go, the plain eye level finder offers the lightest and most compact profile (albeit with no metering :-)). The FMs are the only models under 600 grams (21 oz). For a more detailed breakdown of the individual models, just click the links in this paragraph. The FT3 and FM were the only mechanical Nikon amateur models to feature the flip-up AI coupling lever that allowed the mounting of unmodified pre-AI (1977) lenses. If higher shutter and flash-sync speeds are important to you, the FM2N offers the most capability. For left-eyed photogs: one issue with all of the amateur MF Nikon bodies from the Nikkormat FT onward and the F2 is the fact that the power switch is integrated with the film advance lever. It has to be swung out 30 degrees (20 degrees on the F2) to power up the meter. This means the lever pokes into the right eyebrow at best or into the right eye itself depending on how your face is arranged ;-). Not necessarily a deal-breaker, but a nuisance, nonetheless. The other drawback (until the FM2 came along) was that if the lever was not closed the meter remained on until the power was exhausted. The FM2/FM2n offered an improved power switching system that was activated by a half-press on the shutter release, and would automatically shut off the meter after 30 seconds to conserve battery power (although the advance lever still served as the master power switch/shutter release lock. Skip the FM10.

  Electronic SLR Bodies

• Nikon began research and development on an electronically-controlled automatic exposure SLR in 1965. Seven years later, the Nikkormat EL (signifying Electronic Light) became just the second Japanese aperture-priority SLR on the market (following Pentax' Electro Spotmatic/ES). It would set the basic control layout (ditching the lens mount-concentric shutter speed ring of the mechanical Nikkormats for a top deck mounted one) for all of Nikon's enthusiast MF models to come. ELs are just as solid as the mechanical Nikkormats construction-wise, and feature a mechanical backup speed of 1/90 sec.

• Automated film winding capability came to the electronic Nikkormats in 1976 with the release of the ELW (guess what "W" stood for ;-)). The external AW-1 winder is a bit of a dud, and let's face it, you don't get a Nikkormat for the autowinding anyways :-). 

• A year later, the Nikon EL2, on the other hand, did bring some clear improvements like a faster, more sensitive silicon diode meter, exposure compensation, and Automatic Aperture Indexing with the flip-up AI lever. It was the first Nikon to sport flexible printed circuits (FPC). Interestingly, the EL2 has identical circuits to its successor, the FE, even though it requires 6V instead of 3V and it still has the larger form factor of the Nikkormat EL. 

• 1978 brought the FE, the first electronic Nikon SLR to have a more compact and lighter-weight design (which debuted with the mechanical FM in 1977). As noted above, it shares the circuits & viewfinder of the EL2. The FE was the first Nikon fixed prism body to have interchangeable focusing screens (three different types were offered). Along with its mechanical twin, the FM, it also utilized Nikon's first good enthusiast motor drive, the MD-12 (skip the otherwise identical MD-11, which lacks an internal auto ON/OFF switch and thus will devour the camera's internal batteries if left ON). The FE retained the mechanical backup speed of 1/90 sec., but the shutter speed dial now had to be turned to the "M90" setting to use it. It was also the last amateur electronic body to feature the flip-up AI tab.

• The EM (1979) was a milestone camera for Nikon, not in the sense of function or features, but as the first-ever consumer-level Nikon SLR. It was an aperture-priority-only SLR, with mechanical speeds of 1/90 sec and Bulb. Light weight and compact dimensions were the order of the day, with the Pentax ME and Olympus bodies being design targets. The EM was the first "plastic fantastic" Nikon, necessary to keep costs and weight down. It also was the first Nikon to have a slow shutter speed warning beeper. It had a dedicated SB-E flash and MD-E motor drive as accessories. As a side note, the EM was the first Nikon SLR to be released that was styled by Giorgetto Guigiaro.

• Speaking of Guigiaro, the first electronically-controlled professional Nikon SLR, the F3, debuted in 1980. It was the first Nikon SLR to feature the famed red line of its stylist that continues to be the signature of the Nikon brand. For all of the hullaballoo over Nikon's decision to adopt electronic control of its flagship camera, the F3 was a simple machine, offering aperture-priority and manual modes, and a spartan viewfinder display. It featured the final and best iteration of the horizontal-travel titanium shutter that had debuted two decades earlier with the original F. Quartz timing made it more accurate than its predecessors and vibration was minimal. The F3 was also famed for its film advance mechanism that featured seven ball bearings to ensure smooth, reliable operation. It offered the same range of accessories as the previous pro bodies: interchangeable finders, focusing screens, motor drive, and so on. The F3 proved to be the longest-lived professional Nikon SLR, staying in production for over 20 years.

• The massive sales success of the Canon AE-1 Program and Minolta X-700 compelled Nikon to introduce their own Program exposure consumer-level SLR, the FG, in late 1982. (Think Minolta X-700 in an EM body ;-)). The FG adopted the "final-check" metering and TTL flash metering of the X-700 and featured manual and aperture-priority modes along with Program. It offers a better manual mode shooting experience than the X-700, as it displays both the set and recommended shutter speeds in the viewfinder. The FG was the first Nikon amateur body with TTL flash metering and introduced the flash pin layout still used by Nikon to this day. The FG requires AI or AI-s lenses to utilize its Program mode. AI-converted lenses can only be used in aperture priority or manual modes because they lack the interior lug of true AI lenses used to signal the minimum aperture of the lens for proper Program function with the FG. 

• The FE2 debuted in 1983, adding the TTL flash metering of the FG and an electronically-controlled version of the FM2's shutter. Interestingly, this shutter had actually been developed first in electronic form and then adapted to fully mechanical operation for the FM2. The mechanical backup speed was now 1/250 sec which also served as the maximum flash sync speed. The same self-timer/MLU function introduced with the FM2 was used. As with the FM2, the model designation was now engraved on the front of the camera. Brighter focusing screens, an improved mirror dampener, metering activated by the shutter release button, and an exposure compensation indicator in the viewfinder rounded out the improvements over the original FE. The FE2 did lose the flip-up AI lever and external battery check of the FE.

• 1983 also brought the FA, the most advanced amateur model Nikon had ever introduced. It had a number of firsts for Nikon, the most notable being what would become known as "matrix" metering. The official acronym was AMP (automatic multi-pattern), which signified 5 zones that were measured and compared to a database of 30,000 exposures stored in the camera's computer. The user could select between matrix and standard centerweighted metering with a push and twist of the metering button on the right side of the lens mount. AMP was only available in the automatic modes (P, S, & A) and with AI or AI-s lenses, while centerweighted could be selected in any mode and worked with AI-converted lenses. The FA was also the first Nikon to feature four exposure modes, adding program and shutter-priority to the aperture-priority and manual modes of the FE2. The FA also was the first amateur Nikon body to utilize an F3-style LCD viewfinder display and an integrated eyepiece shutter. As well, like the F3/MD-4 combination, the FA's dedicated MD-15 motor drive was capable of powering the camera body from its 8 AA battery pack. Otherwise, it used the same family of accessories as the FM/FE members of the family. It was the most fully-featured manual focus Nikon, ever. 

• 1984 brought the final update of the EM, as it morphed into the FG-20. It adopted the shutter speed dial of the FG, allowing for full manual mode, and the ability to choose whether to activate the slow shutter speed warning beeper or not :-). The set shutter speed was not displayed in the viewfinder. The ISO range was extended to 3200. 

• The final, proper Nikon-designed and built MF SLR was the F-301 (N2000 in North America). It was basically the F-501 (N2020) auto focus model sans AF. Appearing in 1985, at the start of the AF revolution, it was also the first Nikon SLR with an internal auto winding and film loading although rewinding was still done manually. The biggest advance of the F-301 was the introduction of the "BriteView" focusing screen. The F-301 was also the first Nikon body to use four AAA or AA cells to power the body (an optional MB-3 battery holder was needed to use the longer-lasting AAs). The location of the batteries in the base of the camera caused the tripod socket to be offset from the body/lens centerline, ruling out panoramic shooting (unless the AH-3 tripod plate is used). The F-301 also was the first Nikon to exclusively require an electronic remote release (MC-12A or B) instead of the old standard cable-type. 

• 1990 brought the oddball F-601M/N6000 to replace the F-301, basically a standard F-601/N6006 auto focus (AF) body gutted of its AF system and built-in flash, with a K2 manual focusing screen installed. The central focusing aids precluded the use of the F-601's spot meter, so that was also yanked out. AI-modified, standard AI, and AI-s lenses were all compatible, but could only be used in A or M exposure modes and only with centerweighted metering as P & S modes and Matrix metering all required lenses with CPUs, which only came on AF lenses from Nikon at the time. It was also the first Nikon SLR to adopt a 6-volt lithium battery (the CRP2/DL223) that never held up its end of the power bargain in an SLR (it was passable in point and shoots). It was expensive for what it did and didn't help the camera's case with consumers. This placed the F-601M in no-man's land, with looks and controls that screamed "AF SLR" at a time when MF was only popular with hardcore, old-school shooters that preferred traditional looks and controls. Needless to say, sales were far from brisk.
• Which led to another replacement in 1996, consisting of an electronic version of the Cosina-built FM10. The FE10 had similar specifications (and looks) to the FM10 aside from: aperture-priority mode, AE lock, an FE-style viewfinder display (albeit with LEDs rather than a needle), exposure compensation, and a flash ready signal. Oddly, the flash sync speed was 1/90 sec. rather than the 1/125 sec. of the FM10. The FE10 was the lightest-weight MF Nikon SLR ever sold. It went out of production around 2003 and disappeared from the lineup in 2006.

• Just in case you thought the hybrid FM3A had been left out in the mechanical section, here it is ;-). The reason being is that it was really closer to an FE2 in operation with a full range of mechanical backup shutter speeds. It had an FE-style viewfinder, TTL flash capability, aperture-priority, exposure compensation, and AE lock (moved from the DOF lever to a more convenient button on the back). Why Nikon labelled it an FM probably had to do with the familiarity of people with the FM2N which had been produced into 2000 with the FM3A being introduced only a year later. The FE2 had been discontinued in 1987 with the supply being depleted by 1989, so perhaps Nikon felt that the recognition level of the FE designation was too low for marketing purposes. Regardless, it did everything an FM2N could do and more :-). New, brighter focusing screens also debuted with this model and they can be used with older FEs, FE2s and FAs with an exposure compensation adjustment. With the FM2(n), the adjustment has to be made via the ISO setting. A nice touch was a film window in the back door. The film door lock of earlier models was deleted, so only a direct pull upward on the rewind lever was needed to open the back. DX film speed setting was also added with full manual override. The FM3A only stayed in production for five years, as the film era came to an end and production costs were quite high due to the hybrid shutter, metal-bodied construction and the requisite increase in quality control procedures that entailed. That means that these bodies have strong resale value and excellent examples still fetch $600 - $700 USD and mint copies $800 - $1,500 USD.

    Recommendations. With 12 electronic MF SLRs to choose from, it can seem daunting to narrow down these Nikons. So let's break them down into three basic categories: Professional, Amateur, and Consumer.

    The F3 is the professional entry in this bunch, and it is a remarkable value in today's market. Very good working examples can be had for $250 - $300 USD, which is around $50 more than an FE2 or FA (the two top amateur bodies). You get the best in build quality and reliability with only a small weight penalty (75 - 150 grams). The F3's main drawback is its flash capability and mounting system. With its horizontal shutter, the sync speed tops out at 1/80 sec. compared to 1/250 sec. for the FM3A, FE2 & FA. Flash mounting is also more of a pain with the over-the-rewind mount of the F3 compromising exposure compensation control as opposed to the pentaprism mounts of the amateur models. There is also a greater risk of damaging the FRE resistor used for aperture-priority operation if a mounted flash sustains an impact, potentially bricking the whole camera. For a closer look at the F3, check out this article.

    If you have the dollars, the FM3A is the most capable MF body Nikon ever produced, but you have to open your wallet a lot wider for that hybrid shutter. As far as the rest of the amateur MF models go, the FE2 and FA can be had for $150 -$250 USD in very good to excellent condition. The TTL flash metering, sync speed of 1/250 sec., and top speed of 1/4000 sec. elevate them above their predecessors and keep right up with the FM3A. The FA also offers program and shutter priority modes with AI-s lenses if that is important to you, along with it's AMP metering. Frankly, there is not a whole lot of difference between centerwighted and AMP, as they can both be fooled by extreme lighting situations (AMP will get you about a 10% improvement in hitting the correct exposure over centerweighted in such situations). Later versions of matrix metering certainly improved on this, however. Some people prefer the needle metering display of the FE2 to the LCD viewfinder of the FA, or vice-versa. Slotting in slightly below those two bodies are the original FE and EL2. They share the same circuitry, viewfinder, and flip-up AI tab to allow pre-AI lenses to be mounted and used with stop-down metering. The FE loses the MLU function of the EL2 (but has the same mirror pre-fire feature as the FM) and a little under 200 grams (7 oz) of weight. I would recommend the FE over the EL2 due to a power switch issue that the EL2 can sometimes have and also because the FE uses two inexpensive and readily available 357 cells instead of the expensive 544 cell used in the EL2. However, if you can find an EL2 without the switch problem, it makes for a very fine vintage body. You can find FEs and EL2s for about half the cost of an FE2, which is no small difference. Finally come the two Nikkormats. The ELW offers no specification advantage over the EL besides the winder (which I'm not exactly wild about, in case you hadn't noticed ;-)) and can have the same power drain issues as the EL2 (which the original EL does not have). The EL lacks the faster-acting silicon meter of the EL2. All of the EL family have higher power consumption than the FEs. For a closer look at the history of the ELs , refer to this article.

    Now to the consumer bodies. Logically, none of these come up to the quality level of the enthusiast bodies. Despite their "lowly" market position, they were still well-built, especially for the price point they had to meet. They can be had for very little nowadays, and make for an excellent body to take into dodgier situations where you might not want to risk a better camera. The F-301 and FG are the leaders when it comes to features, with a lot of capability packed within their flanks. The FG offers plenty of manual override capability along with TTL flash, and quiet manual film advance for those who wish to be more discreet. The biggest issue with the FG is the reliability of its circuitry. If you get a good one, great, but they do seem to die more frequently than FEs. No great mystery, corners have to be cut somewhere when you drop down a market slot. The F-301 (N2000) is even better as far as capability and build quality go, but its automatic winding with its attendant noise will be off-putting for some. But it is, by far, the best bang-for your-buck MF Nikon body. If you can put up with the cheaper feel of the FE10 it is a capable camera, but it does give up the TTL flash capability of the FG and F-301 while being more expensive than the F-301. The FG-20 and EM bring up the rear as far as technical capability (no TTL flash, etc.), but they are the lightest of the bunch (excluding the badge-engineered Cosinas), and they are easily half the price (or even less) of an FE. None of the consumer bodies besides the step-sister FE10 feature DOF preview, which can be a deal-breaker for some. Last, that leaves the N6000/F-601M...'nuff said ;-). 

   It is worthy of note that you can make excellent photographs with any of these cameras. Some just provide more versatility, comfort, and reliability in the process. The biggest thing is to find something that works well for you (and that you can afford ;-)). 

  
  Flash

    Nikon introduced their first electronic flash in 1969. They dubbed their flash units Speedlights. The SB-1 was a monster, both in size and power. It required a bracket that both the camera body and flash unit mounted to. It was a modular system with a network of battery packs, cables, chargers, and macro ring lights that could be customized to the requirements of the photographer. There would be two further generations of this professional unit: the SB-5 (1975) which debuted auto flash (via an attachable sensor) and motor drive compatibility to 3.8 fps; the SB-11 (1980) which brought TTL capability when used with the F3; and the SB-14 (1981) a more compact, slightly less powerful version of the SB-11. The SB-11 halved the power consumption of the SB-5 and was the only model to use 8 AA cells in its grip instead of large Ni-cad cells. There was also an auxiliary D-cell pack for greater longevity and faster recycling. The SB-14 reduced its size by reverting to the use of a separate battery pack; now with 6 C cells. A specialized SB-6 was designed as for high-speed strobe applications. It is very rare and very heavy! The other specialized Speedlight in this group was the SB-140, which was an SB-14 designed for UV and infrared as well as visible light photography. Super rare and expensive! 

   ​1972 saw the first compact Speedlights introduced. Because Nikon had their proprietary flash mount for the F cameras but used the ISO standard hot shoe on their amateur models, they used two designations for the same basic flash unit, one for the F style another for the ISO mount (e.g. SB-2 for F and SB-3 for ISO). This dualism would continue until the F4 adopted the ISO mount. One nice feature of the compact units is that they all used thyristor circuitry, which meant that they only discharged as much power as was needed rather than the complete capacitor charge as did non-thyristor units. This both conserved power and made for faster recycling. The SB-2/3 and their descendants had a distinctive rotating mount that allowed for the flash to be oriented horizontally or vertically through 180 degrees. An even simpler and smaller (2 AA cell) fixed model, the SB-4, was made available in ISO form only in 1974. 1977 brought an updated, more efficient SB-7E/8E combo with the -7E using the F flash mount and the -8E the standard ISO flash mount. Both models dropped one of the three automatic settings of the SB-2/3. The taller and thinner SB-9 replaced the SB-4 at the same time. It eschewed the dial scale of the SB-4 for two horizontal sliding scales and had two automatic settings versus the single setting of its predecessor. The SB-E was introduced in 1979 as a companion for the EM SLR. It was slightly more powerful than the SB-9 with three automatic settings and also featured a flash-ready contact that caused an LED to light in the viewfinder of the EM and FE/FM cameras. 1978 brought the SB-10, which superseded the SB-8E with the addition of the flash ready contact for the FE body.

    ​ In 1980, Nikon adopted TTL flash metering with the F3 and its exclusive, compact SB-12 TTL flash unit. It was basically an SB-7E with the TTL capability added by means of a third signal pin that the flash used together with the ISO setting of the camera to determine when to cease firing. The comparable ISO mount SB-15 debuted in 1982 with the FG SLR that first used the now-familiar 4-pin layout still found on the latest Nikon DSLRs. The SB-15 offered full camera-controlled TTL flash metering, two auto sensor settings, a setting for use with a motor drive, and a full manual mode. It also included a handy tilting feature enabling bounce flash to go with the rotating mount. 1983 brought the SB-17, an SB-12 updated to SB-15 specifications for the F3 flash mount. The SB-18 also debuted at this time as a basic TTL/manual unit for the consumer-grade FG SLR.  But the most noteworthy flash model introduced by Nikon in 1983 was the SB-16, a unit having the power of the SB-14 yet in a more compact form with greater flexibility. It would be the progenitor of the next generation of top-end Nikon flashes. It consisted of a main unit with a head that tilted and swiveled and had a small secondary head to provide a catch-light for portraiture. There were two modules that attached to the bottom, one with the F3-style foot (AS-8) and the other with the ISO foot (AS-9). The complete unit was designated SB-16A with the AS-8 and SB-16B with the AS-9. TTL and two auto sensor settings along with full manual capability and four zoom settings for the main head (28, 35, 50, & 85mm) made it by far the most feature-packed flash Nikon had yet created. The final Nikon flash of the pre-AF era was the SB-19 (1984), an update of the bottom-of-the-line SB-E for the new FG-20 and older EM SLRs. It had the same output as the SB-18 for the FG, but no TTL capability and two auto sensor settings. Both of these models were more efficient and used 4 AA cells instead of the 2 AAs of the SB-E, which gave about three times as many flashes per set of batteries.

    ​ Although we are dealing with the MF Nikon series in this article, we will review the AF- era flashes, seeing as they offer backward compatibility with the MF line. There were major advances in efficiency and capability and many newer AF units can be had for relatively low cost, particularly from the late '80s to the mid-'90s generations. Nikon initially continued to offer three basic tiers of flash units. They maintained their tradition of introducing new flash units with new SLR models, especially as new capabilities were coming pretty hot and heavy in this time period. The first model to appear with the F-501 (N2020) SLR was the SB-20 in 1986. It was a mid-range unit with a completely new form factor in this category for Nikon. It had a unique bounce system with only the interior of the flash head rotating by means of a dial on the side of the housing. It had three zoom settings (35, 50, & 85mm). It was the first Speedlight with the STBY (standby) position on the power switch, which would turn the flash off after a minute or two when not being used, but would immediately power it up again once the shutter release was pressed half way. Along with the now-ubiquitous TTL function, the SB-20 had five settings for auto sensor use (from f/2 to f/8 @ ISO 100) along with five manual settings down to 1/16 power. It was very well-equipped for its position in the lineup. A year later, the SB-22 (or SB-20 lite :-)) appeared. It was down a little on power, had only two auto settings, and no zoom capability. It also lacked the variable power settings of the SB-20 in manual mode, although when set to motor drive mode it operated at roughly 1/3 of full power. It could recycle in 30% less time than the SB-20. They are both quite handy little units.

     ​1988 proved to be the year when Nikon filled out its new AF Speedlight lineup. The SB-23 was the replacement for the SB-18 at the bottom of the ladder in a smaller form factor. It offered basic TTL and manual operation, and very fast recycling (minimum 2 sec.) in a tiny package. But the big story was the SB-24, introduced with the F-801 (N8008) SLR. This was no updated SB-16, but a new-from-the-ground-up design with the first digital display for a Speedlight (that could be backlit in low light). It was also Nikon's first flash with rear (or second) curtain sync, repeating flash (up to eight firings per frame), and flash exposure compensation. As well, it added another zoom setting (24mm). There were now six (f/2 - f/11 at ISO 100) auto settings. It retained the five manual power settings of the SB-16 and had about the same battery life, albeit with a 12.5% boost in power and 35% faster recycling.

   For the next seven years the only new models to appear would be revisions and improvements to the SB-24. With the introduction of the F90 (N90) body, in 1992, came the SB-25. While appearing nearly identical to the SB-24, it did have some notable improvements: two more manual power settings (1/32 & 1/64), red-eye reduction, high-speed sync with the F90 and newer advanced bodies, a pull-out diffuser for coverage down to 20mm lenses, and a built-in white card for a catch-light when using bounce flash. In 1994, the updated F90X (N90s) body had a new companion flash, the SB-26. The diffuser now covered 18mm lenses and there was now a built-in wireless slave system for off- camera use with other flash units. 

    With the SB-27 (1995), Nikon gave a nod to their past middle-of-the-line Speedlights (the latest being the SB-15 of 1982) and their rotating mechanism that allowed for horizontal or vertical orientation through a range of 180 degrees. Fully updated with the latest features like rear curtain sync, built-in bounce card, and red-eye reduction, the SB-27 had 5 manual power settings, zoom coverage from 24 to 70mm (4 settings in horizontal mode and 3 in vertical) making it the most versatile rotating flash ever produced by Nikon. The SB-26 went on a diet in 1997 and emerged 14% lighter and with a new name: SB-28. Along with the weight it also lost wireless slave capability. 1998 brought an updated SB-22s that ditched the MD (motor drive) setting for two more automatic settings (making for a total of four) and a slight boost in power with a touch longer recycling time. It also shaved 40 grams of weight from the original SB-22. And so we come to the end of the film-era Speedlights.

    Macro Flash. Nikon introduced macro ring flash attachments with the SB-1. The SR-1 was for standard macro photography with 35 - 200mm lenses, and the SM-1 was designed for 24 - 105mm lenses and greater than 1:1 magnification ratios. Neither unit was standalone, but required the SB-1 and other accessories to function. The SR-2/SM-2 units were updated with cable sockets rather than hard-wired cables and they no longer had to use the SB-1 or -5 flash units for power. Instead, they used their own separate power packs. None of these units had TTL capability. That came with the first dedicated macro flash unit, the SB-21A/B, which also introduced TTL flash metering to Nikon macrophotography in 1986. The A/B designation was used, as with standard Speedlights, to differentiate the flash mounting system with the SB-21A for the F3 and the -21B for ISO hot shoes. It was a huge step forward. There were now three manual power settings (instead of two), and more accessories. 14 years passed before the updated SB-29 appeared. There was no longer any need for two mounts, so it was a standardized design that utilized the latest of Nikon's TTL technology. Two years later the SB-29s was introduced with the addition of a 1/32 manual power setting. The SB-21 and SB-29(s) are the macro Speedlights of choice.  

    Recommendations. Although there are decades-worth of Speedlights available its actually not too hard to narrow down the choices because of the extensive backward compatibility of the late '80s to late '90s units. Even if you don't need or want TTL capability, their automatic and manual options are very extensive and versatile. And they can be had for very reasonable prices nowadays. Let's start at the top. SB-28s and -26s in excellent condition can be had for $80 - $90 USD. If the wireless slave of the SB-26 is not your cup of tea, you can save $30 - $40 USD by selecting an SB-25, which has all of the automatic and manual features of the two newer units. (The SB-25 is my personal pick among the top-end flashes for its balance of features and value.) An SB-24 can cut another $10 or $15 USD off of the SB-25 but you lose the two lowest manual power settings of the SB-25. Any of these units has plenty of capability for any MF Nikon SLR. The next area to consider is if you want less bulk and weight and can put up with bit less power. For the smaller units my pick is the SB-20. It has 84% of the power (and recycles a touch faster) while saving a third of the weight of the SB-25. It also has 5 manual power settings, which edges the SB-22. Now for the topper...they can be had in excellent nick for $25 USD. We have a value winner! The SB-22 & -22s are excellent little units as well, but they cost almost as much as an SB-25 and lack the manual capability of the other nominees. If you just have to have a 180 degree rotating Speedlight, the SB-27 sits in SB-24 price territory, with SB-20 power and recycling, and in between the two for weight and bulk. A bonus to all of these Speedlights is that they can be used in auto and manual modes with any camera with a hot shoe. They have much lower trigger voltages than most 1970's and some early 80's flash units, so they are completely safe for use on both older MF and newer AF bodies.     

    This is not to say that any of the older Speedlights are unusable. But you pay almost as much for a bigger, heavier, less powerful SB-16 as the SB-25. There is no older model comparable to the SB-20 in size, power, or features. The SB-15 can be had for about 2/3 the cost of an SB-27, but you lose the five manual settings, and half of the automatic settings, along with a 16% power reduction among other things. The one situation where you might take a hard look at an SB-16A or -17 is if you are looking at an F3 and you need cheap TTL flash capability. In order to use the more modern AF-era Speedlights for TTL on an F3, you would need to shell out $50 to $100 USD for the AS-17 flash coupler on top of the flash unit cost. This adapter translates the TTL signals of the F3 into modern Nikon TTL signals. The relatively compact SB-17 will cost $35 to $50 USD and the SB-16A goes for about the same but does carry a hefty size and weight penalty for its greater power and longer recycling times. If you happen to get one of these older models thrown in with a camera or lens purchase, by all means use it :-). But there are really no drawbacks and so many advantages to using the newer AF-era Speedlights on your MF Nikons (aside from the F3).

  Accessories

​    Nikon had, arguably, the most extensive range of accessories of any of the Big 5 manufacturers. Indeed, it was their early offering of interchangeable finders, focusing screens, motor drives, bulk film backs, and many more pieces that solidified their grip on the professional market for three decades. Over time, the professional lineup expanded with intervalometers, battery packs, and AC adapters, and much more. With the introduction of the FM/FE family in 1977, a whole new range of accessories became available for the amateur and later, the consumer lineups. Nikon probably has produced more distinct cables for various connections than the other 4 major manufacturers combined ;-). They also produced more motor drive and winder models than any other manufacturer. Some of this was due to a lack of continuity through time and the differences between the professional, amateur, and consumer lines. Nikon's accessory designations are a veritable alpha-numeric goulash. Fortunately, there are a few websites out there that are very helpful at decoding the jumble. Instruction manuals are also very helpful in showing which accessories accompany a certain product. One nice thing about Nikon is that they still offer as new many things like eyepieces and diopters for vintage models. With patience you can find almost any needed accessory, aside from some very rare and specialized pieces. One thing to be aware of is the incompatibility of certain accessories with either previous or succeeding generations of cameras and lenses. If you are ever in doubt, check thoroughly before using a certain accessory to prevent damage or impaired operation.  

  Reliability & Servicing

    Nikon built their reputation for rugged dependability on the back of the F and the mechanical Nikkormats. Aside from the failed Nikkorex F, they had an enviable record of reliability. For decades, they were the standard all competitors were measured against. With their pro and advanced amateur models, they were almost always at the top of their segments (among the Big 4 and later 5) in price because of the materials used and solid construction of their SLR bodies. And people were often willing to pay extra for that premium. When it came to lenses, there was less of a difference, with Pentax and Minolta often having better or equal build quality, especially when it came to the focus mechanism. Admittedly, this has more to do with feel than outright reliability, but Nikkors often need to have cleaning and re-lubing of the focus mechanism done more frequently than the other two. When Nikon moved into the consumer SLR market, something obviously had to give as they sought to compete on price with the other manufacturers. The gap narrowed to a point basically indistinguishable between the brands. This is not a slight on Nikon as that is the reality of any "race to the bottom" when cost becomes the primary consideration. Most often with the consumer bodies, it was the electronics that were the biggest issue. One advantage Nikon held in the consumer segment was their manual film advance mechanisms, which still used ball bearings, even if not as many as in their higher-end models. Most other manufacturers cut more corners there and over time it showed. For their price when new, the consumer MF Nikons offered a lot of value, and not a few pros would use these compact, capable bodies for a lightweight backup to their F-series. Nowadays, the used prices of many of the amateur bodies and the professional F3 have dropped to a point where it is hard to resist spending a few dollars more for the boost in build quality or capability. But you can often pick up a consumer body for well south of $50 USD, and they can make for a great backup and often a primary camera if their limitations are respected. Most Nikon accessories are well made and very reliable.

     As far as servicing goes, any of the mechanical Nikons and Nikkormats can still be independently serviced, which is good as Nikon has a policy of supporting products for ten years after production ends, which disqualifies any of the MF Nikon pieces of equipment (aside from the few AI-s lenses still in production). Electronic models are more of a crapshoot, as there are no new circuit boards available if yours fails, leaving cannibalization of another body as the only alternative for repair, with all of the risk that entails. This is obviously not endemic to Nikon, as all vintage electronic SLRs fall into this category. It just goes with the territory :-). Lenses are as easily serviced as any other brand of glass and Nikkors retain their value better than most other MF systems. If you need a pre-AI lens converted to AI, there are a variety of service providers (shameless advertising plug for our AI conversion service here ;-)) that offer it, and if you have some skill with tools you may attempt it yourself. Do not attempt it without thoroughly researching it first or if you have any doubts.         

  Conclusion

​    The Nikon MF SLR system was one of the most extensive, which makes it worthy of a good long look when it comes to selecting a vintage SLR system. Excellent reliability and glass, along with a plethora of accessories are all strong points. Although Nikon was not generally on the cutting edge of innovation ("generally" does not mean that they never were innovative ;-)) or ergonomics, they never fell too far behind (at least in the manual focus era). One benefit of their dedication to backwards compatibility is the fact that certain accessories that came along in the late '80s and 90's (e.g. AF flash units) with a lot more capability were able to be used on earlier bodies (even if those bodies could not always utilize the full range of features offered by the newer accessory).

    If you are looking at big telephoto lenses, Nikon is one of the two companies (the other, Canon) that offer the most in the way of selection and quality. Such an extensive system, with a lot of pro-level equipment and a still-current lens mount, means that it will often cost more to build a Nikon system than one from the other Big 5 members. But there are bargains to be found with patience and self-discipline.  Looking for lenses a little outside of the mainstream, for instance, with slightly smaller maximum apertures or underrated focal lengths is one way to stretch your dollars. The Series E lenses, while lacking the build quality and multi coatings of Nikkors, are optically excellent in most cases, and can be had as inexpensively as any other Big 5 OEM lenses of the same focal & aperture range.   

    Another benefit of the popularity of the Nikon F system is the number of online resources for research and knowledge on how to get the most out your gear. The following list is by no means exhaustive, but I have found these very helpful:

• Roland Vink's website - http://www.photosynthesis.co.nz/nikon/lenses.html
• Bjorn Rorslett's legacy website - http://www.naturfotograf.com/lens_surv.html
• Nikon's Historical website - http://imaging.nikon.com/history/chronicle/
• Nikkor Lens Histories - http://imaging.nikon.com/history/story/
• Thom Hogan's site - http://www.filmbodies.com/cameras/
• Nikon Sections - http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/photography.htm
• Richard de Stoutz' site - http://www.destoutz.ch/nikon-f.html

​
    Next up: the Olympus OM system

  References:

    Nikon Camera Chronicle @ http://imaging.nikon.com/history/chronicle/
    The Thousand and One Nights @ www.http://imaging.nikon.com/history/story/
    Photography in Malaysia @ http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/photography.htm
    Roland Vink @ http://www.photosynthesis.co.nz/nikon/lenses.html
​    Nikon Lens Surveys @ http://www.naturfotograf.com/lens_surv.html
    bythom Nikon Flash Specifications @ http://www.bythom.com/sb1.htm
    Nikon Instruction Manuals @ http://www.butkus.org/chinon/nikon.htm
    Popular Photography Mar. 1991 p. 34  @  ​https://books.google.ca